Often they erected a church on the site of an indigenous temple. In 1898, the United States achieved victory in the SpanishAmerican War with Spain, ending the Spanish colonial era. Vol. [72] To these political functions of the governor, it could be joined the military ones, according to military requirements, with the rank of Captain general. [37] Exploration from Peru resulted in the foundation of Tucumn in what is now northwest Argentina. Columbus, in his voyage, sought fame and fortune, as did his Spanish sponsors. Their colonial governments reflected the model of a two-house Parliament and long-cherished civil liberties. Collier, Simon. Spaniards also imported citrus trees, establishing orchards of oranges, lemons, and limes, and grapefruit. The spectacular conquests of central Mexico (151921) and Peru (1532) sparked Spaniards' hopes of finding yet another high civilization. In southern Central and South America, settlements were founded in Panama (1519); Len, Nicaragua (1524); Cartagena (1532); Piura (1532); Quito (1534); Trujillo (1535); Cali (1537) Bogot (1538); Quito (1534); Cuzco 1534); Lima (1535); Tunja, (1539); Huamanga (1539); Arequipa (1540); Santiago de Chile (1544) and Concepcin, Chile (1550). American-born elite men complained bitterly about the change, since they lost access to power that they had enjoyed for nearly a century.[109]. This is thought to have been the result of an increasingly harsh climate to the south, and the lack of a populous and sedentary indigenous population to settle among for the Spanish in the fjords and channels of Patagonia. Direct link to Stephen White's post I've read that the reason, Posted 3 years ago. increasing colonial ties with English leaders in parliament. Las Casas spent his long life attempting to defend the indigenous populations and to enlist the Spanish crown in establishing protections for them, seen most prominently in the enactment of the New Laws of 1542, restricting Spaniards' inheritance of encomiendas. The Plan of Iguala was part of the peace treaty to establish a constitutional foundation for an independent Mexico. Cook, Noble David. The conquistadors originally organized it as a captaincy general within the Viceroyalty of Peru. The Kingdom of Portugal authorized a series of voyages down the coast of Africa and when they rounded the southern tip, were able to sail to India and further east. [30] South of the Bo-Bo River the Mapuche successfully reversed colonization with the Destruction of the Seven Cities in 15991604. It consisted of a number of opposing views about the way natives were to be integrated into colonial life, their conversion to Christianity and their rights and obligations. Hispanic American Historical Review 50.4 (1970): 645-664. [74], Beginning in 1522 in the newly conquered Mexico, government units in the Spanish empire had a royal treasury controlled by a set of oficiales reales (royal officials). [79], The Valladolid debate (15501551) was the first moral debate in European history to discuss the rights and treatment of a colonized people by colonizers. The New Laws of 1542 were the result, limiting the power of encomenderos, the private holders of grants to indigenous labor previously held in perpetuity. 15001850), Learn how and when to remove this template message, Timeline of imperialism Colonization of North America, Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, "Interacciones entre espaoles de Chilo y Chonos en los siglos XVII y XVIII: Pedro y Francisco Delco, Ignacio y Cristbal Talcapilln y Martn Olleta", "Spain, the United States & the American Frontier: Historias Paralelas", "Where the Landing of the First Africans in English North America Really Fits in the History of Slavery", "The Record of Ponce de Leon's Discovery of Florida, 1513", "The Historiography of Sixteenth-Century La Florida", "Background | the Last Conquistador | POV | PBS", Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 1996, "Su Majestad quiere gobernar: la Administracin espaola en Indias durante los siglos XVI y XVII", "Las instituciones polticas en la regin de Cuyo", "Genocide and the Hispanic-American Dilemma", "Pope asks forgiveness for errors of the Church", "El gobierno y la imagen de la Monarqua Hispnica en los viajeros de los siglos XVI y XVII. Equally important, rich deposits of the valuable metal silver. The Franciscans took over some former Jesuit missions and continued the expansion of areas incorporated into the empire. They established the colony of Klein-Venedig in 1528. Pedro de Mendoza and Domingo Martnez de Irala, who led the original expedition, went inland and founded Asuncin, Paraguay, which became the Spaniards' base. [103] Based in Castile, with the assignment of the governance of the Indies, it was thus responsible for drafting legislation, proposing the appointments to the King for civil government as well as ecclesiastical appointments, and pronouncing judicial sentences; as maximum authority in the overseas territories, the Council of the Indies took over both the institutions in the Indies as the defense of the interests of the Crown, the Catholic Church, and of indigenous peoples. [citation needed]. More spanish blood equaled more power. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1964. Question 1. [6] 1493: Columbus arrives in Puerto Rico. In 1574, Philip II promulgated the Order of Patronage (Ordenaza del Patronato) ordering the religious orders to turn over their parishes to the secular clergy, a policy that secular clerics had long sought for the central areas of empire, with their large indigenous populations. Simmons, Marc, The Last Conquistador: Juan de Oate and the Settling of the Far Southwest, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 1991, book title. Direct link to d042's post how do I Define the term , Posted 3 years ago. Pope Alexander VI in a 4 May 1493 papal decree, Inter caetera, divided rights to lands in the Western Hemisphere between Spain and Portugal on the proviso that they spread Christianity. Cuman in Venezuela was the first permanent settlement founded by Europeans in the mainland Americas,[14] in 1501 by Franciscan friars, but due to successful attacks by the indigenous people, it had to be refounded several times, until Diego Hernndez de Serpa's foundation in 1569. Since their appointments were for life or the pleasure of the monarch, they had a continuity of power and authority that viceroys and captains-general lacked because of their shorter-term appointments. The United States took occupation of Cuba, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico. The Spanish did establish the settlement of Chile in 1541, founded by Pedro de Valdivia. The. providing opportunities for colonists to participate in government. "Cook, Sherburne F. 1976b. It was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting to subdue the mightiest empire in the Americas. In the first settlements in the Caribbean, the Spaniards deliberately brought animals and plants that transformed the ecological landscape. With the conquests of the Aztec and Inca empires, large numbers of Spaniards emigrated from the Iberian peninsula to seek their fortune or to pursue better economic conditions for themselves. Rodrigo de Bastidas was first to establish Spain's claim to the isthmus, sailing along the Darin coast in March 1501, but he made no settlement. [45] In 1565, Spain established a settlement in St. Augustine, Florida, lasting in one way or another until modern times. New York: Cambridge University Press 1994. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBrading1971 (, Kuethe, Allan J. House of Welser in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. A drawing depicting Malintzin translating for Cortez and Aztes. This is most clearly seen in conquest of Mexico with the alliance of the Nahua city-state of Tlaxcala against the Aztec Empire resulting in lasting benefits to themselves and their descendants. [34], Venezuela was first visited by Europeans during the 1490s, when Columbus was in control of the region, and the region as a source for indigenous slaves for Spaniards in Cuba and Hispaniola, since the Spanish destruction of the local indigenous population. Lockhart and Schwartz, Early Latin America, p.89. Latin America is generally understood to consist of the entire continent of South America in addition to Mexico, Central America, and the . The Caribbean islands became less central to Spain's overseas colonization, but remained important strategically and economically, especially the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. The capital Lima was built near the Pacific coast. "The 1539 inquisition and trial of Don Carlos of Texcoco in early Mexico.". Castao, Victoria Ros. The monarch was head of the civil and religious hierarchies. Farriss, Nancy Marguerite. All of the colonies, except Cuba and Puerto Rico, attained independence by the 1820s. A number of friars in the early period came to the vigorous defense of the indigenous populations, who were new converts to Christianity. [49] Juan de Oate, is sometimes referred to as "the Last Conquistador",[50] expanded Spanish sovereignty over what is now New Mexico. Held in the Colegio de San Gregorio, in the Spanish city of Valladolid, it was a moral and theological debate about the colonization of the Americas, its justification for the conversion to Catholicism and more specifically about the relations between the European settlers and the natives of the New World. 15501600) to subdue them, but peace was only achieved by Spaniards making significant donations of food and other commodities the Chichimeca demanded. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like Identify the locations where slaves were most frequently sent after being transported to the New World on the Middle Passage., Identify the issue that was not a point of contention between colonial assemblies and their respective royal governors., On the table below, click or tap to identify the first colony to have a black . Rowe, John. Leaving native people alone would not satisfy the blood lust of the Conquistadores, or the gold fever that drew them to want to take whatever they saw of value. During the Bourbon era, even when the crown systematically appointed peninsular-born Spaniards to royal posts rather than American-born, the cabildos remained in the hands of local elites. [citation needed]. 2, p. 99. The capital city of a viceroyalty became of the seat of the archbishop. The ideas from the French and the American Revolution influenced the efforts. It was translated quickly to English and became the basis for the anti-Spanish writings, collectively known as the Black Legend. Since in central and southern Mexico (Mesoamerica) and the highland Andes indigenous peoples had existing traditions of payment of tribute and required labor service, the Spanish could tap into these systems to extract wealth. The leader of an expedition, the adelantado was a senior with material wealth and standing who could persuade the crown to issue him a license for an expedition. These governorates, also called as provinces, were the basic of the territorial government of the Indies,[67] and arose as the territories were conquered and colonized. "Chile: Colonial Foundations" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. "Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)" in. There is indirect evidence that the first permanent Spanish mainland settlement established in the Americas was Santa Mara la Antigua del Darin. The two main areas of Spanish settlement after 1550 were Mexico and Peru, the sites of the Aztec and Inca indigenous civilizations. Other notable historical figures in the production are Malinche, Corts cultural translator, and other conquerors Pedro de Alvarado, Cristbal de Olid, Bernal Daz del Castillo. The first settlement of La Navidad, a crude fort built on his first voyage in 1492, had been abandoned by the time he returned in 1493. The Jesuits resisted crown control, refusing to pay the tithe on their estates that supported the ecclesiastical hierarchy and came into conflict with bishops. [25][26][27][28] Not until the conquest of the Incan Empire, which used similar tactics and began in 1532, was the conquest of the Aztecs matched in scale of either territory or treasure. They were predominantly criollos (Americas-born people of European ancestry, mostly Spanish or Portuguese), bourgeois and influenced by liberalism and in some cases with military training in the mother country. Residences of the officials and elites were closest to the main square. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like How did Spanish colon. On the death, unauthorized absence, retirement or removal of a governor, the treasury officials would jointly govern the province until a new governor appointed by the king could take up his duties. Viceroys served as the vice-patron of the Catholic Church, including the Inquisition, established in the seats of the viceroyalties (Mexico City and Lima). [5] The deeply pious Isabella saw the expansion of Spain's sovereignty inextricably paired with the evangelization of non-Christian peoples, the so-called spiritual conquest with the military conquest. Direct link to Bailey's post So did the Caste System d, Posted 5 years ago. "The Incas Under Spanish Colonial Institutions". The crown relied on ecclesiastics as important councilors and royal officials in the governance of their overseas territories. In the twentieth century, Garatuza's life was the subject of a 1935 film[165] and a 1986 telenovela, Martn Garatuza. This is not a fabrication; indigenous death to such diseases claimed around 50% in Tenochtitlan and up to 90% elsewhere on the continent. Audiencia judgments and other functions became more tied to the locality and less to the crown and impartial justice. Direct link to jonathand0412's post Why did the Spanish choos, Posted 3 years ago. The Central African Empire was a short-lived and self-proclaimed "imperial" one-party state ruled by an absolute monarch that replaced the Central African Republic. 1 (2012): 26-40. The Spanish conquest. "Nicols de Ovando" in, sfn error: no target: CITEREFGngora1998 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFLagos_Carmona1985 (, sfn error: no target: CITEREFHistoria_general_de_Espaa1992 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBushnell1981 (, harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChipman2005 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFBushnell1981 (, sfnm error: no target: CITEREFChipman2005 (. Direct link to louisaandgreta's post Illness played a much gr, Posted 2 years ago. There were few permanent settlements, but Spaniards settled the coastal islands of Cubagua and Margarita to exploit the pearl beds. [80], The indigenous populations in the Caribbean became the focus of the crown in its roles as sovereigns of the empire and patron of the Catholic Church. [112] The Bourbon-era intendants were appointed and relatively well paid. Study with Quizlet and memorize flashcards containing terms like In addition to new intellectual developments and scientific discoveries, the expansion of Europe into the Americas was aided by which of the following desires and impulses among many Europeans?, By making desertion near impossible, Corts was able to create an environment in which his followers understood conquest as a necessity . The labor of dense populations of Tainos were allocated as grants to Spanish settlers in an institution known as the encomienda, where particular indigenous settlements were awarded to individual Spaniards. [29], Southward colonization by the Spanish in Chile halted after the conquest of Chilo Archipelago in 1567. The officials of the royal treasury at each level of government typically included two to four positions: a tesorero (treasurer), the senior official who guarded money on hand and made payments; a contador (accountant or comptroller), who recorded income and payments, maintained records, and interpreted royal instructions; a factor, who guarded weapons and supplies belonging to the king, and disposed of tribute collected in the province; and a veedor (overseer), who was responsible for contacts with native inhabitants of the province, and collected the king's share of any war booty. 87-88. During the Napoleonic Peninsular War in Europe between France and Spain, assemblies called juntas were established to rule in the name of Ferdinand VII of Spain. history of Latin America, history of the region from the pre-Columbian period and including colonization by the Spanish and Portuguese beginning in the 15th century, the 19th-century wars of independence, and developments to the end of the 20th century. The Spanish Borderlands, Historiography Redux., Spanish Exploration and Conquest of North America, This page was last edited on 21 April 2023, at 16:57. After several attempts to set up independent states in the 1810s, the kingdom and the viceroyalty ceased to exist altogether in 1819 with the establishment of Gran Colombia. Although today Buenos Aires at the mouth of Ro de la Plata is a major metropolis, it held no interest for Spaniards and the 1535-36 settlement failed and was abandoned by 1541. In Mexico, conquistadors found great golden treasures, including great discs of gold, masks, jewelry, and even gold dust and bars. [123], As the empire expanded into areas of less dense indigenous populations, the crown created a chain of presidios, military forts or garrisons, that provided Spanish settlers protection from Indian attacks. Powers, Stephen. The diocesan clergy) (also called the secular clergy were under the direct authority of bishops, who were appointed by the crown, through the power granted by the pope in the Patronato Real. If you're seeing this message, it means we're having trouble loading external resources on our website. [84][85][86][87][88], The exploitation and demographic catastrophe that indigenous peoples experienced from Spanish rule in the Caribbean also occurred [citation needed], Of the history of the indigenous population of California, Sherburne F. Cook (18961974) was the most painstakingly careful researcher. The structure of the hierarchy was in many ways parallel to that of civil governance. Important indigenous crops that transformed Europe were the potato and maize, which produced abundant crops that led to the expansion of populations in Europe. They also imported cane sugar, which was a high-value crop in early Spanish America. "California Indian Characteristics". Western Venezuela's history took an atypical direction in 1528, when Spain's first Hapsburg monarch, Charles I granted rights to colonize to the German banking family of the Welsers. The exchange did not go one way. Portugal's claim to part of South America under the Treaty of Tordesillas resulted in the creation of Portuguese colony of Brazil. [citation needed] In Peru, the indigenous Amerindian pre-contact population of around 6.5 million declined to 1 million by the early 17th century. Indigenous elites could use the noble titles don and doa, were exempt from the head-tax, and could entail their landholdings into cacicazgos. As the indigenous populations declined, the need for corregimiento decreased and then suppressed, with the alcalda mayor remaining an institution until it was replaced in the eighteenth-century Bourbon Reforms by royal officials, Intendants. 1992. During the early Age of Discovery, the diocesan clergy in Spain was poorly educated and considered of a low moral standing, and the Catholic Monarchs were reluctant to allow them to spearhead evangelization. Image credit: By 1600, Spain had reaped substantial monetary benefits from New World resources. The Libertadores (Spanish and Portuguese for "Liberators") were the principal leaders of the Spanish American wars of independence. The Spanish founded San Sebastin de Uraba in 1509 but abandoned it within the year. It is estimated that during the colonial period (14921832), a total of 1.86million Spaniards settled in the Americas, and a further 3.5million immigrated during the post-colonial era (18501950); the estimate is 250,000 in the 16th century and most during the 18th century, as immigration was encouraged by the new Bourbon dynasty.[2]. [Chile] has four months of winter, no more, and in them, except when there is a quarter moon, when it rains one or two days, all the other days have such a beautiful sunshine Chile was explored by Spaniards based in Peru, where Spaniards found the fertile soil and mild climate attractive. Through such methods, the Spaniards came to accumulate a massive force of thousands, perhaps tens of thousands of indigenous warriors. Once the Aztec Empire was toppled, they founded Mexico City on the ruins of the Aztec capital. The purpose, they said, was to protect the American colonists, though the actual reason probably had more to do with wanting to 'keep an eye' on them. Invasion of the American continents and incorporation into the Spanish Empire, "Conquista" redirects here. The end of the Habsburg dynasty in 1700 saw major administrative reforms in the eighteenth century under the Bourbon monarchy, starting with the first Spanish Bourbon monarch, Philip V (r. 17001746) and reaching its apogee under Charles III (r. 17591788). Venezuela: The Colonial Era in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. They replicated the existing indigenous network of settlements, but added a port city. If you're behind a web filter, please make sure that the domains *.kastatic.org and *.kasandbox.org are unblocked. They pursued a policy of joint rule of their kingdoms and created the initial stage of a single Spanish monarchy, completed under the eighteenth-century Bourbon monarchs. How did spain handle all the inflation? Respect was out of the question then, as now, when people of one race consider themselves to be superior to people of other races. Each order set up networks of parishes in the various regions (provinces), sited in existing indigenous settlements, where Christian churches were built and where evangelization of the indigenous was based. [89] In Mexico, the crown established the General Indian Court (Juzgado General de Indios), which heard disputes affecting individual indigenous as well as indigenous communities. [63] Ecclesiastics also functioned as administrators overseas in the early Caribbean period, particularly Frey Nicols de Ovando, who was sent to investigate the administration of Francisco de Bobadilla, the governor appointed to succeed Christopher Columbus. [43] In 1521, Ponce de Leon was killed while trying to establish a settlement near what is now Charlotte Harbor, Florida. Peru was the last territory in the continent under Spanish rule, which ended on 9 December 1824 at the Battle of Ayacucho (Spanish rule continued until 1898 in Cuba and Puerto Rico). By maintaining hierarchical divisions within communities, indigenous noblemen were the direct interface between the indigenous and Spanish spheres and kept their positions so long as they continued to be loyal to the Spanish crown. Hispanic Research Journal 13, no. "[110], Their main function was judicial, as a court of justice of second instance court of appeal in penal and civil matters, but also the Audiencias were courts the first instance in the city where it had its headquarters, and also in the cases involving the Royal Treasury. [92] Indigenous noblemen were particularly important in the early period of colonization, since the economy of the encomienda was initially built on the extraction of tribute and labor from the commoners in their communities. from other nations, thus boosting its colonial popula-tion. There were a variable number of councilors (regidores), depending on the size of the town, also two municipal judges (alcaldes menores), who were judges of first instance, and also other officials as police chief, inspector of supplies, court clerk, and a public herald. The last Inca stronghold was conquered by the Spanish in 1572. In Hispaniola, the indigenous Tano pre-contact population before the arrival of Columbus of several hundred thousand had declined to sixty thousand by 1509. For the Spaniards Tlaxcalan allies, their crucial support gained them enduring political legacy into the modern era, the Mexican state of Tlaxcala.[23][24]. Don Martn was sent into exile, while other conspirators were executed. [32] With a hostile indigenous population, no obvious mineral or other exploitable resources, and little strategic value, Chile was a fringe area of colonial Spanish America, hemmed in geographically by the Andes to the east, Pacific Ocean to the west, and indigenous to the south. In the twentieth century, there have been a number of films depicting the life of Christopher Columbus. The names of two indigenous leaders (caciques) who rebelled against Spanish colonization, Enriquillo and Hatuey in the Dominican Republic (Hispaniola), have become important.[12]. The correct statements regarding the culture and geography of Latin America are as follows - . [130] Columbus's discovery opened a floodgate of Spanish exploration. Once on the mainland, where there were dense indigenous populations in urban settlements, the Spanish could build a Spanish settlement on the same site, dating its foundation to when that occurred. Upon the success of the expedition, the spoils of war were divvied up in proportion to the amount a participant initially staked, with the leader receiving the largest share. They were referred to as Espaoles and Espaolas, and later being differentiated by the terms indicating place of birth, peninsular for those born in Spain; criollo/criolla or Americano/Ameriana for those born in the Americas. The colonies grew both geographically along the Atlantic coast and westward and numerically to 13 from the time of their founding to the American Revolution (1775-81). While chartered by the Crown, English colonization was funded by joint-stock companies, groups of investors eager for profits. During the Bourbon Reforms in the mid-eighteenth century, the crown systematically sought to centralize power in its own hands and diminish that of its overseas possessions, appointing peninsular-born Spaniards to Audiencias. [96][97] For the Andean area, there are an increasing number of publications as well. London, England: Penguin Classics. The crown created civil and religious structures to administer the vast territory. In areas of sparse population, ranching of cattle (ganado mayor) and smaller livestock (ganado menor) such as sheep and goats ranged widely and were largely feral. Who had? A labor system in which the Spanish crown authorized Spaniards, known as encomenderos, to enslave native people to farm and mine in the Americas. Caeque, Alejandro "The Political and Institutional History of Colonial Spanish America", Weber, David J. When the Catholic Monarchs gave official approval for the plans for Columbus's voyage to reach "the Indies" by sailing West, the funding came from the queen of Castile. Unreliable citations may be challenged or deleted. [135], Native populations declined significantly during the period of Spanish expansion. He was subsequently tried and convicted of cruelty to both natives and colonists and banished from New Mexico for life.[52]. From that misperception the Spanish called the indigenous peoples of the Americas, "Indians" (indios), lumping a multiplicity of civilizations, groups, and individuals into a single category. They were aggressive in making their investment pay, alienating the indigenous populations and Spaniards alike. [114] In areas of previous indigenous empires with settled populations, the crown also melded existing indigenous rule into a Spanish pattern, with the establishment of cabildos and the participation of indigenous elites as officials holding Spanish titles. For the colony's continued existence, a reliable source of labor was needed. Spaniards and Indigenous parents produced Mestizo offspring, who were also part of the Repblica de Espaoles. Even by the mid-1510s, the western Caribbean was largely unexplored by Spaniards. The Biological Exchange, also called the Columbian Exchange, was a global transfer of plants, such as Native American corn and potatoes, and animals, such as European horses, that revolutionized agriculture and hunting in both Europe and the Americas. Many institutions established in Castile found expression in The Indies from the early colonial period. In colonial Mexico, there are petitions to the king about a variety of issues important to particular indigenous communities when the noblemen did not get a favorable response from the local friar or priest or local royal officials.