[footnote 23] Although recorded serious violence has increased in England and Wales, the trends are mixed in relation to antisocial behaviour. Given limitations in the underlying data set, the majority of studies and reports that focus on ethnicity and crime use broad ethnic categorisations and do not tend to include a fine-grained analysis according to geographical location. According to the Mayor of London's Office for Policing and Crime, two thirds of knife crime offenders under 25 in London were black or ethnic minority in 2017. The available data suggests that ethnicity is associated with significant disparities within the CJS that are particularly acute for BAME men above 18 years old in relation to drug offences. Also, offenders can and do engage in a wide range of crimes often explained theoretically by the inter-relationships between several risk factors. Well send you a link to a feedback form. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 18, 417-425; Brennan, I. R., & Moore, S. C. (2009). The most important factors that helped young offenders to desist were: In contrast, the factors which acted as barriers to the process of desistance were: This report complements and adds to the findings derived from the Sampson and Laub study, as well as the SPOOCS study. For example, during the 3 follow-up years, 80% of the sample reoffended, and in the self-report section several individuals who were not convicted reported actually reoffending. Data has also shown that crack cocaine use is increasing in England and Wales. There is often somewhat of a tautological relationship between risk factors and associated behaviours. Stats and data | Metropolitan Police Stats and data We're committed to transparency and, as such, we wish to give you as many tools as possible to help you to not only see what your local police force is doing to combat crime but also to be able to identify the different types. Within these BAME categories, people from Black African, Black Caribbean and Other Black groups consistently experienced the highest rates. However, further analysis by the MOJ[footnote 6] of drug-related offences also demonstrated distinctive disproportionality in sentencing. [footnote 14] However, they were less likely than White men to be proceeded against at a magistrates court. 43(3): 365-397. Between 2009 to 2010, and 2018 to 2019 the annual stop and search rate in England and Wales reduced from 25 to 7 per 1,000 people. , Mayor of London Office of Policing and Crime (2018). For example, a lack of self-control, experience of victimisation, frequency of truanting are factors associated with adverse childhood experience (including abuse, neglect, parental criminality, substance abuse, being taken into care), poor educational attainment and school exclusion. London ranks third - with the Metropolitan police recording 137 instances of knife crime last year. It is widely understood that in the UK and elsewhere, the majority of burglaries are committed by drug users engaging in property crime to support their addictions. Knife crime offences across all groups were at the second highest level in 75 years, the Office for National Statistics (ONS) found. For example, Welsh and Farringtons meta-analysis from 2009[footnote 49] showed that CCTV cameras have a modest yet significant impact on crime reduction when compared with control areas. This might begin with government and police working in partnership with universities to secure funding from United Kingdom Research and Innovation (UKRI) in order to undertake a nationwide comparative study. A meta-analysis of 179 empirical studies and 107 independent datasets found a strong relationship between gang membership and various types of offending. However, even within this general pattern there was considerable disparity in relation to ethnicity. Does CCTV displace crime? . Preventing gang and youth violence: a review of the risk and protective factors. The academic literature of risk factors refers to 3 broad types of offenders: Adolescent Limited (AL) Offenders: These are individuals who engage in minor offending or anti-social behaviour into their 20s. For example, one study[footnote 46] found that professional burglars used illegal drugs when committing offences to reduce their anxiety and remain vigilant. , See Bjerregaard, B. While moral alignment reduced offending behaviour, obligation to obey did not predict offending behaviour. Life-Course Persistent (LCP) Offenders: In contrast to AL offenders, LCP offenders start offending in early in life and do not desist throughout their life-course, and often engage in violent behaviour. We focus specifically on patterns of ethnic disparity in relation to a) drug offences, b) organised crime groups and county lines, c) violent crime, d) burglary, robbery and theft, e) anti-social behaviour. Statistics relating to convictions and courts are the responsibility of the Ministry of Justice. This precludes an in-depth exploration of the complex overlap of and inter-relationships between these categories, in that offenders are also often victims of crime and vice versa. [footnote 81] As with Sampson and Laub (2017) they also found that desistance was enabled through largely situational changes obtained through gainful employment, along with the absence of otherwise criminal peers. These arrests translated into higher percentages of theft convictions that varied in a similar pattern, accounting for 38% of convictions for White offenders, and 28% for Other (including Chinese) offenders, 18% of Black offenders, and 19% of Asian offenders. , Bottoms, A., & Shapland, J. Parker, H., & Newcombe, R. (1987). In the same time period, 52% of people arrested were BAME, which is an over-representation primarily because of the high proportion of BAME communities in London. It is important to note that while we did not identify trust as a risk (or protective) factor for the crimes of interest, it is clear that a lack of trust is pervasive in the UKs criminal justice system. While they can demonstrate broad patterns of disparities in CJS outcomes in relation to ethnicity, such aggregation cannot meaningfully be used to explore why these patterns exist. These data can be. [footnote 12] A slightly different pattern was evident for young Mixed ethnicity men, who were 4.2 times more likely than young White men to be arrested for robbery. Bearing in mind these general patterns, we address what the sample of literature tells us about factors that tend to be associated with these crimes. The section above demonstrates consistent patterns of disparity where BAME people tend to be more likely to be arrested, charged and convicted relative to White people for the range of specific crimes focused on in this paper. Research Review: The relationship between childhood violence exposure and juvenile antisocial behavior: a meta-analytic review. Several studies have shown that the drugs mostly associated with acquisitive crime include heroin, crack cocaine and methamphetamine. Most violent attacks in England and Wales involved no weapon. An evaluation of the effectiveness of Youth Offender Teams identified factors that helped in the process of desistance, as well as factors that acted as barriers to desistance. [footnote 89] First, those who are LO because their levels of self-reported criminality extended over a long period of time and then increasing their level of offending in adulthood and who were then convicted. (2016) of 179 empirical studies and 107 independent data explored the relationship between gang membership and offending and found that there is a fairly strong relationship between gang membership and offending. Identifying risks for male street gang affiliation: a systematic review and narrative synthesis. [footnote 77] While too little trust can negatively impact order in prisons, too much trust can also have a similar effect. Tackling Anti-Social Behaviour. Find out about the Energy Bills Support Scheme, The report of the Commission on Race and Ethnic Disparities: supporting research, Patterns of ethnic disparity in crime based on a review of existing governmental studies, Factors which may be correlated (though not necessarily causative) with people who commit these crimes[footnote 21], Gaps in existing research and evidence to address known data collection and quality issues. [footnote 35] Also, the concepts of gangs and gang membership are problematic. Knife crime tends to be more prevalent in large cities, particularly in London. It is difficult to ascertain patterns of disparity in relation to age since the reports tend to present data merely on those above and below 18 years of age. Sadly, fatal stabbings have caused the deaths of 13 teenagers on London's streets so far this year alone. For every 100,000 people in the capital, there were 169 knife offences in 2018-19. Other factors (apart from trust) are important in explaining crime. There do appear to be some patterns of ethnic disparity in anti-social behaviour (ASB) in the sample of reports and studies that we studied. , Smith (2004). Why do people comply with the law? Burglars on Burglary: Prevention and the offender. , Trust and desistance issues are dealt with in detail in Appendix 1 and 2. In order to explore the relationship and relative importance of the factors identified in the previous section, we recommend: Apart from utilising more quantitative research methods to examine drivers of crime, it is crucial to supplement these with qualitative methods. Perhaps the best source of existing evidence and analysis on this issue is the extensive literature review of conduct disorder[footnote 53] by Farrington (2005) that identified several early risk factors for ASB (see Table 7). Instead, new research should be developed that would allow for the underlying drivers of crime and disparity within CJS in the UK. [footnote 69] We will reference a blend of UK, US, and European-based studies to examine the association between trust and offending in 2 areas of the criminal justice system: police and prisons. According to the sample of reports, ethnicity is not understood to be associated disproportionately with imprisonment for this category of offending. [footnote 20] The study found that Black African offenders aged 18 to 25 were more likely to breach dispersal powers than offenders in the same age group from different ethnic groups (White British, White Other, Black Other, Asian and Asian British). Preventing gang and youth violence: a review of the risk and protective factors. [footnote 37] This report provides an extensive review of several US and UK qualitative and quantitative cross-sectional and longitudinal studies on youth violence and gang involvement (see Table 3). In this sense, regarding property crime, apart from the key issue of drug addiction, the main risk factors arising from research relate more to situational opportunities and affordances than they do to factors relating the characteristics of the offenders involved. Tackling Anti-Social Behaviour. Policy Exchange's report, Knife Crime in the Capital , reveals the real injustice that at least four out of five gang related homicide victims and perpetrators in London are black or ethnic minority. Childhood origins of antisocial behavior. Addictive behaviors, 37(7), 747-775. While this study did not focus on offending behaviour, it is reasonable to hypothesise that a lack of legitimacy and result in uncooperative behaviour. This study, however, consists exclusively of men, and most of the men (87%) are white British. Dyfed-Powys had the lowest rate of 34 offences per 100,000 individuals (up from 28 in 2020/21). The research identifies a series of individual and family level factors but exposes how these are interlinked with factors linked to economic deprivation and the community, social and individual harms that flow from that (for example, neighbourhood instability, job status, levels of education). Serious Violence Strategy. [footnote 45] Evidence also suggests that some offenders use illegal drugs in order to facilitate their involvement in property crime. The report estimates that there are approximately 720 county lines across England and Wales. (2015) Target suitability and the crime drop. In The Criminal Act, pp. (2014) Why the crime drop?, in M. Tonry (ed.) Statistics on Race and the Criminal Justice System 2018, Farrington, D. P., Piquero, A. R., & Jennings, W. G. (2013). It is therefore unclear as to whether this term refers to those suspected and/or convicted of county lines offences, which contributes to the ambiguity of the findings reported. , Brown, J. and Sturge, G. (2020). The current evidence base indicates the important risk factors associated with committing specific crimes. However, the data also indicated that these figures can largely be attributed to possession of Class B drugs offences (including cannabis), which accounted for nearly half of all drug prosecutions (47%) and drug-related convictions (48%) for Black defendants. We then explore how these patterns may be explained in relation to the interrelated stages of a persons contact with, and journey through, the CJS in terms of policing, courts and sentencing. In 2017, 83% of offenders were male, 35% were aged between 17 to 24, and 69% were BAME. The MOJ reported that approximately a third of prosecutions and convictions of Black people in 2018 were drug related. [footnote 90] Second, those who self reported high levels of criminality in their youth but were either lucky or skilled enough to avoid a conviction until adulthood. [footnote 41]. Accordingly, an approach based on a range of methodologies allows for data triangulation where the weaknesses inherent in some datasets are offset by the strengths of others. , Home Office Report (2019). Centre for Crime and Justice Studies. [footnote 88] There appear to be 2 groups of LO offenders. The British journal of criminology, 50(3), 530-549. Observations of police-public interactions and in-depth interviews can be used in conjunction with the statistics to help explain why the broad patterns exist. Burglars invariably make rational decisions based on target suitability, and various situational risk factors have been identified in the literature. Violent crime in London: trends, trajectories and neighbourhoods. [footnote 18]. Although these risk factors are based predominantly on US data (and only supplemented by UK data), there is strong evidence supported by several studies of the generalisability of these types of risk factors to the UK. Although we consider risk factors of gang involvement in this paper, it is important to first note that membership of a gang itself is not necessarily a crime, and that the data and analysis on these issues is generally taken from associations with other types of offending, such as violent crime and drug use. . While the Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) showed an increase in antisocial behaviour between 2018 and 2019, police data showed a decrease in antisocial behaviour over the last 10 years. We use some essential cookies to make this website work. While all BAME men were more likely than White men to be committed to Crown Court for trial, conviction rates for this category of offences were then actually marginally lower than, or proportionate to, White men. [footnote 59]. Beyond procedural justice: A dialogic approach to legitimacy in criminal justice. The extensive body of data and analysis suggests very little if any relationship between ethnic category and involvement in these categories of crime. , It should be emphasised that CCTV while reducing crime in one area could increase crime in another due to displacement effects. Weapon-carrying and the reduction of violent harm. [footnote 72] They found that trust in procedural fairness did not predict obligation to obey the police but predicted moral alignment. order offence groups, one of them being acquisitive violence. Oxford: Oxford University Press. In Liverpool and Manchester, nominals were mostly White, and in Birmingham nominals were mostly Asian. Accordingly, longer-term trends in the data suggest that the proportion of drug prosecutions where the defendant is White have decreased from 71% in 2014, to 63% in 2018, while there was an increase in the percentage of Black defendants, from 15% to 21% over the same period. limitation relates to the methodology and data employed, the lack of detailed specificity in the existing datasets, a detailed and contextualised exploration of the victim offender relationship. , HM Inspectorate of Prisons (2016). To view this licence, visit nationalarchives.gov.uk/doc/open-government-licence/version/3 or write to the Information Policy Team, The National Archives, Kew, London TW9 4DU, or email: psi@nationalarchives.gov.uk. The decontextualised figures supplied in many of the government-mandated annual or biannual statistical bulletins perhaps tell us more about disproportionate police practices (for example, use of stop and search) and potential disparities in the criminal justice system than they can ever reveal about genuine underlying variations in involvement in actual crime. Black victims had the highest percentage of homicides where the principal suspect is a stranger (35%) relative to 21% of White victims, and 26% of Asian and Other (including Chinese) victims. [footnote 40] The literature shows, perhaps unsurprisingly, that gang membership can be considered as a risk factor for increased involvement in violent crimes and illegal drugs. Data sources might include, but would not be limited to: In addition, it would be important to gain an understanding of both general experiences and details of a range of specific offences. , Welsh, B. C., & Farrington, D. P. (2004). , Ministry of Justice (2016). By understanding why victims and offenders share similar profiles it is possible to gain a better understanding of the causes of crime. Somali nationals were referenced by 33% of police forces (with lines predominantly originating in London or Manchester), and Western Balkan Organised Crime Groups were referenced by 9% of police forces. The most influential longitudinal study in the UK is Farringtons Cambridge Study on Delinquent Development. The MOJ[footnote 10] explored the extent of the association between ethnicity and custodial sentencing within specific higher Justice Matters: Disproportionality. Here just 37 knife-related crimes were reported per . In turn, these factors are all far more likely among communities in areas of socio-economic deprivation relative to areas of wealth. , Ibid; Nee, C., and Taylor, M. (1988). Despite the fact that reoffending is a major problem, it is widely understood in academic literature that even the most persistent and prolific offenders can and generally do eventually desist from crime. October 11, 2021. , https://crimesciencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40163-020-00132-7, MOJ (2015): Associations between ethnic background and being sentenced to prison in the Crown Court in England and Wales in 2015. knife crime offences recorded in London in the 12 months to September 22. It is not possible to make any causal links between ethnicity and CJS outcomes (MoJ, 2019,[footnote 61] page 6).
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